Women's Movements in India — Sati Abolition to Reservation, Key Leaders and Reforms
Comprehensive study notes on Indian women's movements covering social reforms, education, suffrage, legal rights, and key women leaders for Kerala PSC exams.
▶ മലയാളത്തിൽ വായിക്കുകComprehensive study notes on Indian women's movements covering social reforms, education, suffrage, legal rights, and key women leaders for Kerala PSC exams.
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Women’s movements in India span from early 19th-century social reforms to modern-day legislative milestones. PSC exams frequently test knowledge of reform acts, key personalities, and constitutional provisions related to women’s rights.
Phase 1: Social Reform Era (1800s–1900s)
Abolition of Sati
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Practice | Self-immolation of widow on husband’s funeral pyre |
| Abolished by | Lord William Bentinck |
| Year | 1829 |
| Regulation | Bengal Sati Regulation (Regulation XVII of 1829) |
| Key reformer | Raja Ram Mohan Roy |
| Organisation | Brahmo Samaj (founded 1828) |
Widow Remarriage
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Act | Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856 |
| Key reformer | Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar |
| Supported by | Lord Dalhousie (Governor General) |
| First widow remarriage under Act | Organised by Vidyasagar himself |
| In Kerala | V.T. Bhattathiripad promoted widow remarriage among Namboothiris |
Female Infanticide Prevention
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Act | Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870 |
| Region most affected | Rajputana, Punjab, Gujarat |
Age of Consent
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Act | Age of Consent Act, 1891 |
| Raised marriage age to | 12 years for girls |
| Catalyst | Death of Phulmoni Dasi (age 10) due to marital assault |
| Child Marriage Restraint Act | Sarda Act, 1929 (marriage age: boys 18, girls 14) |
Phase 2: Women’s Education
| Pioneer | Contribution | Year/Period |
|---|---|---|
| Savitribai Phule | First female teacher in India; opened first girls’ school in Pune with Jyotirao Phule | 1848 |
| Jyotirao Phule | Founded Satyashodhak Samaj; opened schools for girls and lower castes | 1848 onwards |
| Pandita Ramabai | Founded Sharada Sadan for widows; Arya Mahila Samaj | 1889 |
| Begum Rokeya | Pioneer of Muslim women’s education in Bengal; founded Sakhawat Memorial School | 1911 |
| Dhondo Keshav Karve | Founded Indian Women’s University (SNDT), Pune | 1916 |
| Sister Nivedita | Opened a girls’ school in Calcutta | 1898 |
Phase 3: Women in the National Movement
| Leader | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Sarojini Naidu | ”Nightingale of India”; first woman President of INC (1925); first woman Governor (UP, 1947) |
| Annie Besant | First woman President of INC (1917 — before Sarojini, but she was Irish-born British) |
| Kasturba Gandhi | Active in Champaran, Quit India; imprisoned |
| Aruna Asaf Ali | Hoisted flag at Gowalia Tank (1942 Quit India); “Grand Old Lady of Independence” |
| Usha Mehta | Ran underground radio during Quit India |
| Captain Lakshmi Sahgal | Commander of Rani of Jhansi Regiment in INA |
| Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit | First woman President of UN General Assembly (1953) |
| Madam Bhikaji Cama | Unfurled Indian flag at Stuttgart Congress (1907) |
| Kittur Rani Chennamma | Fought against British in 1824 (pre-1857 resistance) |
| Rani Lakshmibai | Led 1857 revolt from Jhansi |
Key Women’s Organisations
| Organisation | Founded | Founder |
|---|---|---|
| Bharat Stree Mahamandal | 1910 | Sarala Devi Chaudhurani |
| Women’s Indian Association (WIA) | 1917 | Margaret Cousins, Dorothy Jinarajadasa |
| All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) | 1927 | Margaret Cousins |
| National Federation of Indian Women | 1954 | Aruna Asaf Ali |
| Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) | 1972 | Ela Bhatt |
Phase 4: Post-Independence Legislative Milestones
| Year | Act/Amendment | Key Provision |
|---|---|---|
| 1955 | Hindu Marriage Act | Monogamy, divorce rights for women |
| 1956 | Hindu Succession Act | Women’s right to property |
| 1961 | Dowry Prohibition Act | Dowry made punishable offence |
| 1971 | Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act | Legalised abortion under certain conditions |
| 1976 | Equal Remuneration Act | Equal pay for equal work |
| 1986 | Indecent Representation of Women (P) Act | Ban on indecent depiction |
| 1992 | 73rd and 74th Amendments | 1/3 reservation in Panchayats and Municipalities |
| 2005 | Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act | Civil law remedy for domestic violence |
| 2005 | Hindu Succession Amendment | Daughters equal coparcenary rights |
| 2013 | Criminal Law Amendment (Nirbhaya Act) | Stricter rape laws, new offences (stalking, acid attack) |
| 2015 | Juvenile Justice Act | 16-18 year olds tried as adults for heinous crimes |
| 2021 | Medical Termination of Pregnancy Amendment | Extended limit to 24 weeks for special categories |
| 2023 | Nari Shakti Vandan Act (106th Amendment) | 33% reservation for women in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies |
Constitutional Provisions for Women
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| Art. 14 | Equality before law |
| Art. 15(1) | No discrimination on grounds of sex |
| Art. 15(3) | State can make special provisions for women and children |
| Art. 16 | Equal opportunity in public employment |
| Art. 39(a) | Right to adequate livelihood (DPSP) |
| Art. 39(d) | Equal pay for equal work (DPSP) |
| Art. 42 | Just and humane conditions of work; maternity relief (DPSP) |
| Art. 44 | Uniform Civil Code (DPSP) |
| Art. 51A(e) | Fundamental Duty to renounce practices derogatory to dignity of women |
| Art. 243D | Reservation for women in Panchayats (not less than 1/3) |
| Art. 243T | Reservation for women in Municipalities (not less than 1/3) |
Women’s Movements in Kerala
| Event/Person | Significance |
|---|---|
| Channar Revolt (1859) | Lower-caste women fought for right to cover upper body in Travancore |
| Ayyankali | Fought for Dalit women’s access to public spaces and education |
| V.T. Bhattathiripad | ”Maadhavan” novel; fought for Namboothiri women’s liberation |
| Kerala — 50% Panchayat reservation | Kerala provides 50% reservation for women in local bodies (higher than constitutional 33%) |
| First woman CM | None yet in Kerala (as of 2026) |
| K.R. Gouri Amma | First woman minister of Kerala (1957) |
Frequently Asked PSC Questions
Q1. Who abolished Sati in India? Ans: Lord William Bentinck (1829), with support from Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Q2. Who was the first woman President of the Indian National Congress? Ans: Annie Besant (1917) — if asking Indian-born, then Sarojini Naidu (1925)
Q3. Which amendment provides 33% reservation for women in Parliament? Ans: 106th Amendment (Nari Shakti Vandan Act, 2023)
Q4. Who founded the Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)? Ans: Ela Bhatt (1972, Ahmedabad)
Q5. What was the Channar Revolt in Kerala? Ans: 1859 revolt in Travancore where lower-caste women fought for the right to cover their upper body
Q6. Which Article allows the State to make special provisions for women? Ans: Article 15(3)
Q7. Who was the first female teacher in India? Ans: Savitribai Phule (1848)
Q8. Which Act is known as the Nirbhaya Act? Ans: Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013
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