Women's Movements in India — Sati Abolition to Reservation, Key Leaders and Reforms
Comprehensive study notes on Indian women's movements covering social reforms, education, suffrage, legal rights, and key women leaders for Kerala PSC exams.
Comprehensive study notes on Indian women's movements covering social reforms, education, suffrage, legal rights, and key women leaders for Kerala PSC exams.
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Women’s movements in India span from early 19th-century social reforms to modern-day legislative milestones. PSC exams frequently test knowledge of reform acts, key personalities, and constitutional provisions related to women’s rights.
Phase 1: Social Reform Era (1800s–1900s)
Abolition of Sati
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Practice | Self-immolation of widow on husband’s funeral pyre |
| Abolished by | Lord William Bentinck |
| Year | 1829 |
| Regulation | Bengal Sati Regulation (Regulation XVII of 1829) |
| Key reformer | Raja Ram Mohan Roy |
| Organisation | Brahmo Samaj (founded 1828) |
Widow Remarriage
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Act | Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856 |
| Key reformer | Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar |
| Supported by | Lord Dalhousie (Governor General) |
| First widow remarriage under Act | Organised by Vidyasagar himself |
| In Kerala | V.T. Bhattathiripad promoted widow remarriage among Namboothiris |
Female Infanticide Prevention
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Act | Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870 |
| Region most affected | Rajputana, Punjab, Gujarat |
Age of Consent
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Act | Age of Consent Act, 1891 |
| Raised marriage age to | 12 years for girls |
| Catalyst | Death of Phulmoni Dasi (age 10) due to marital assault |
| Child Marriage Restraint Act | Sarda Act, 1929 (marriage age: boys 18, girls 14) |
Phase 2: Women’s Education
| Pioneer | Contribution | Year/Period |
|---|---|---|
| Savitribai Phule | First female teacher in India; opened first girls’ school in Pune with Jyotirao Phule | 1848 |
| Jyotirao Phule | Founded Satyashodhak Samaj; opened schools for girls and lower castes | 1848 onwards |
| Pandita Ramabai | Founded Sharada Sadan for widows; Arya Mahila Samaj | 1889 |
| Begum Rokeya | Pioneer of Muslim women’s education in Bengal; founded Sakhawat Memorial School | 1911 |
| Dhondo Keshav Karve | Founded Indian Women’s University (SNDT), Pune | 1916 |
| Sister Nivedita | Opened a girls’ school in Calcutta | 1898 |
Phase 3: Women in the National Movement
| Leader | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Sarojini Naidu | ”Nightingale of India”; first woman President of INC (1925); first woman Governor (UP, 1947) |
| Annie Besant | First woman President of INC (1917 — before Sarojini, but she was Irish-born British) |
| Kasturba Gandhi | Active in Champaran, Quit India; imprisoned |
| Aruna Asaf Ali | Hoisted flag at Gowalia Tank (1942 Quit India); “Grand Old Lady of Independence” |
| Usha Mehta | Ran underground radio during Quit India |
| Captain Lakshmi Sahgal | Commander of Rani of Jhansi Regiment in INA |
| Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit | First woman President of UN General Assembly (1953) |
| Madam Bhikaji Cama | Unfurled Indian flag at Stuttgart Congress (1907) |
| Kittur Rani Chennamma | Fought against British in 1824 (pre-1857 resistance) |
| Rani Lakshmibai | Led 1857 revolt from Jhansi |
Key Women’s Organisations
| Organisation | Founded | Founder |
|---|---|---|
| Bharat Stree Mahamandal | 1910 | Sarala Devi Chaudhurani |
| Women’s Indian Association (WIA) | 1917 | Margaret Cousins, Dorothy Jinarajadasa |
| All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) | 1927 | Margaret Cousins |
| National Federation of Indian Women | 1954 | Aruna Asaf Ali |
| Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) | 1972 | Ela Bhatt |
Phase 4: Post-Independence Legislative Milestones
| Year | Act/Amendment | Key Provision |
|---|---|---|
| 1955 | Hindu Marriage Act | Monogamy, divorce rights for women |
| 1956 | Hindu Succession Act | Women’s right to property |
| 1961 | Dowry Prohibition Act | Dowry made punishable offence |
| 1971 | Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act | Legalised abortion under certain conditions |
| 1976 | Equal Remuneration Act | Equal pay for equal work |
| 1986 | Indecent Representation of Women (P) Act | Ban on indecent depiction |
| 1992 | 73rd and 74th Amendments | 1/3 reservation in Panchayats and Municipalities |
| 2005 | Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act | Civil law remedy for domestic violence |
| 2005 | Hindu Succession Amendment | Daughters equal coparcenary rights |
| 2013 | Criminal Law Amendment (Nirbhaya Act) | Stricter rape laws, new offences (stalking, acid attack) |
| 2015 | Juvenile Justice Act | 16-18 year olds tried as adults for heinous crimes |
| 2021 | Medical Termination of Pregnancy Amendment | Extended limit to 24 weeks for special categories |
| 2023 | Nari Shakti Vandan Act (106th Amendment) | 33% reservation for women in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies |
Constitutional Provisions for Women
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| Art. 14 | Equality before law |
| Art. 15(1) | No discrimination on grounds of sex |
| Art. 15(3) | State can make special provisions for women and children |
| Art. 16 | Equal opportunity in public employment |
| Art. 39(a) | Right to adequate livelihood (DPSP) |
| Art. 39(d) | Equal pay for equal work (DPSP) |
| Art. 42 | Just and humane conditions of work; maternity relief (DPSP) |
| Art. 44 | Uniform Civil Code (DPSP) |
| Art. 51A(e) | Fundamental Duty to renounce practices derogatory to dignity of women |
| Art. 243D | Reservation for women in Panchayats (not less than 1/3) |
| Art. 243T | Reservation for women in Municipalities (not less than 1/3) |
Women’s Movements in Kerala
| Event/Person | Significance |
|---|---|
| Channar Revolt (1859) | Lower-caste women fought for right to cover upper body in Travancore |
| Ayyankali | Fought for Dalit women’s access to public spaces and education |
| V.T. Bhattathiripad | ”Maadhavan” novel; fought for Namboothiri women’s liberation |
| Kerala — 50% Panchayat reservation | Kerala provides 50% reservation for women in local bodies (higher than constitutional 33%) |
| First woman CM | None yet in Kerala (as of 2026) |
| K.R. Gouri Amma | First woman minister of Kerala (1957) |
Frequently Asked PSC Questions
Q1. Who abolished Sati in India? Ans: Lord William Bentinck (1829), with support from Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Q2. Who was the first woman President of the Indian National Congress? Ans: Annie Besant (1917) — if asking Indian-born, then Sarojini Naidu (1925)
Q3. Which amendment provides 33% reservation for women in Parliament? Ans: 106th Amendment (Nari Shakti Vandan Act, 2023)
Q4. Who founded the Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)? Ans: Ela Bhatt (1972, Ahmedabad)
Q5. What was the Channar Revolt in Kerala? Ans: 1859 revolt in Travancore where lower-caste women fought for the right to cover their upper body
Q6. Which Article allows the State to make special provisions for women? Ans: Article 15(3)
Q7. Who was the first female teacher in India? Ans: Savitribai Phule (1848)
Q8. Which Act is known as the Nirbhaya Act? Ans: Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013
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