Sangam Age: Literature, Dynasties, Trade & Society of Ancient South India

The Sangam Age (300 BCE - 300 CE) represents the earliest documented period of South Indian history. Kerala PSC frequently asks 2-3 questions from this topic, especially on literature, rulers, and trade.

The Three Sangams

Sangam	Location	Chairman	Duration	Key Fact
First Sangam	Madurai (Then Madurai, later submerged)	Agastya	Unknown	All works lost
Second Sangam	Kapatapuram (Alavai)	Agastya, Tolkappiyar	Unknown	Only Tolkappiyam survives
Third Sangam	Madurai (present)	Nakkirar	Unknown	Most surviving Sangam literature from here

Key point: The Sangams were assemblies of Tamil poets and scholars patronised by Pandya kings.

Major Sangam Literary Works

The Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai)

Work	Content
Narrinai	Love poems (400 poems)
Kuruntokai	Short love poems (401 poems)
Aingurunuru	500 short poems on love
Patirruppattu	10 decades of poems praising Chera kings
Paripadal	Poems on Tirumal (Vishnu) and Vaigai river
Kalittokai	Love poems in Kali metre
Akananuru	400 love poems (interior/personal themes)
Purananuru	400 poems on war, kings, death (exterior/public themes)

The Ten Idylls (Pattupattu)

Ten long poems including Maduraikanji, Mullaipattu, Nedunalvadai, and Perumpanarruppadai.

The Five Great Epics (Aimperunkappiyankal)

Epic	Author	Subject
Silappadikaram	Ilango Adigal	Story of Kannagi and Kovalan
Manimekalai	Seethalai Sathanar	Buddhist sequel to Silappadikaram
Sivaga Sindamani	Tiruttakka Thevar	Jain themes
Valayapathi	Unknown (Jain work)	Jain religious epic
Kundalakesi	Nathakuthanar	Buddhist themes

Other Important Works

Work	Author	Significance
Tolkappiyam	Tolkappiyar	Oldest surviving Tamil grammar; covers phonology, syntax, and poetics
Tirukkural	Thiruvalluvar	1,330 couplets on virtue, wealth, and love; “Tamil Veda”
Thirumurai	Various Nayanars	Devotional hymns (later period)

The Three Kingdoms (Muvendhar)

Chera Dynasty

Feature	Detail
Capital	Vanji (Karur)
Emblem	Bow and arrow
Port	Muziris (Muchiri/Cranganore, modern Kodungallur)
Famous rulers	Neduncheralathan, Senguttuvan (Red Chera)
Territory	Present-day Kerala and western Tamil Nadu

Senguttuvan (Cheran Senguttuvan):

• Greatest Chera king of Sangam Age
• Instituted the worship of Kannagi (Pattini cult)
• Mentioned in Silappadikaram
• Said to have defeated a Yavana (Roman/Greek) army

Chola Dynasty

Feature	Detail
Capital	Uraiyur (later Puhar/Kaveripattinam)
Emblem	Tiger
Port	Puhar (Kaveripattinam)
Famous rulers	Karikala Chola, Elara
Territory	Kaveri delta region (Cholamandalam)

Karikala Chola:

• Greatest Sangam-era Chola king
• Built the Grand Anicut (Kallanai) on the Kaveri river
• Defeated Cheras and Pandyas at the Battle of Venni
• Developed Kaveripattinam as a major port

Pandya Dynasty

Feature	Detail
Capital	Madurai
Emblem	Fish (Matsya)
Port	Korkai (pearl fishery)
Famous rulers	Nedunchezhiyan, Mudukudumi Peruvazhuthi
Territory	Southern Tamil Nadu (Madurai region)

Nedunchezhiyan:

• Pandya king praised in Purananuru
• Won the Battle of Talaiyalanganam against Cheras and Cholas
• Patron of Sangam poets

Comparison of Three Kingdoms

Feature	Chera	Chola	Pandya
Capital	Vanji	Uraiyur	Madurai
Emblem	Bow	Tiger	Fish
Major Port	Muziris	Puhar	Korkai
Region	Kerala	Kaveri delta	Southern TN
Patronised	Sangam poets	Agriculture, trade	Tamil Sangam assemblies

Trade with Rome

Feature	Detail
Period	1st century BCE to 3rd century CE
Evidence	Roman coins found in Madurai, Karur, Coimbatore; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Exports from India	Pepper, spices, muslin, pearls, ivory, precious stones
Imports to India	Gold, silver, wine, coral, glass
Key ports	Muziris (Chera), Puhar (Chola), Korkai and Tondi (Pandya)
Roman author	Pliny complained of gold drain to India for pepper trade
Yavanas	Term used for Romans/Greeks in Sangam literature
Yavanar settlements	Mentioned in Silappadikaram at Puhar

Important Ports

Port	Kingdom	Modern Location	Trade Item
Muziris	Chera	Kodungallur, Kerala	Pepper, spices
Tondi	Chera/Pandya	Ponnani area	Pearls
Puhar (Kaveripattinam)	Chola	Near Nagapattinam	General trade
Korkai	Pandya	Tuticorin coast	Pearl fishing
Arikamedu	Near Pondicherry	—	Roman trading post; beads

Society and Economy

Social Structure (Tinai System)

Sangam literature divides the Tamil landscape into five tinais (eco-regions):

Tinai	Landscape	Occupation	Deity
Kurinji	Hills/mountains	Hunting, honey gathering	Murugan
Mullai	Forests/pastoral	Cattle rearing	Mayon (Krishna)
Marutham	Fertile plains	Agriculture	Indra
Neytal	Coastal	Fishing, salt-making	Varuna
Palai	Desert/arid	Robbery, warfare	Korravai

Economic Features

Feature	Detail
Agriculture	Rice, sugarcane, pepper, turmeric; Kaveri irrigation
Trade	Internal (barter and coins) and external (Roman trade)
Currency	Coins called “kaasu”; Roman gold coins circulated
Crafts	Weaving (muslin), pearl diving, ship building
Markets	Called “angadi”; separate day and night markets in Puhar

Religion in Sangam Age

Religion	Presence
Folk/Dravidian	Murugan worship dominant; Korravai (war goddess)
Hinduism	Siva, Vishnu (Mayon), Indra mentioned
Jainism	Present; influenced later epics
Buddhism	Present; Manimekalai is Buddhist
Hero stones	Commemorating warriors who died in cattle raids

Quick Revision — 20 Key Sangam Age Questions

1. Sangam assemblies were patronised by: Pandya kings
2. Location of Third Sangam: Madurai
3. Only surviving work from Second Sangam: Tolkappiyam
4. Author of Tolkappiyam: Tolkappiyar
5. Author of Silappadikaram: Ilango Adigal
6. Silappadikaram heroine: Kannagi
7. Manimekalai author: Seethalai Sathanar
8. Manimekalai is about: Buddhism (sequel to Silappadikaram)
9. Tirukkural author: Thiruvalluvar
10. Chera capital: Vanji
11. Chera emblem: Bow and arrow
12. Chera port: Muziris (Kodungallur)
13. Greatest Chera king: Senguttuvan (Red Chera)
14. Chola emblem: Tiger
15. Karikala built: Kallanai (Grand Anicut) on Kaveri
16. Pandya emblem: Fish
17. Pandya capital: Madurai
18. India exported to Rome: Pepper and spices
19. Roman coins found at: Madurai, Karur, Coimbatore, Arikamedu
20. Five landscape divisions are called: Tinai

Compiled from Kerala PSC previous year questions. Sangam Age regularly appears in Graduate Level, Degree Level Preliminary, and University Assistant exams.