Indian History: Art and Architecture — Gandhara, Mathura, Gupta, Temple Styles, Caves

Indian art and architecture evolved over millennia, reflecting religious, cultural, and political changes. Kerala PSC frequently tests knowledge of art schools, temple styles, and cave architecture. This note covers all major topics systematically.

Schools of Sculpture

Gandhara School

Feature	Detail
Period	1st century BCE to 5th century CE
Location	Present-day Pakistan/Afghanistan (Peshawar, Taxila, Swat Valley)
Patronage	Indo-Greek, Kushan kings (especially Kanishka)
Material	Grey sandstone, stucco (later phase)
Influence	Greek/Hellenistic + Buddhist
Subject	Predominantly Buddhist (Buddha images)
Key features	Realistic human form; wavy hair; muscular body; toga-like garments
Buddha depiction	Greek Apollo-like face; curly hair; thick drapery covering both shoulders
First to	Create Buddha’s image in human form (previously only symbols used)
Spiritual quality	Less spiritual, more physical beauty

Mathura School

Feature	Detail
Period	1st to 3rd century CE (peak under Kushans)
Location	Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)
Material	Red sandstone (spotted red)
Influence	Indigenous Indian tradition
Subject	Buddhist, Jain, Hindu (all three)
Key features	Robust body; transparent clothing; smiling face; less drapery
Buddha depiction	Shaven head (or tight curls); right hand in abhaya mudra; seated on lion throne
Unique contribution	First to depict all three religions; developed independently
Spiritual quality	More spiritual warmth; Indian facial features

Amaravati School

Feature	Detail
Period	2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE
Location	Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh)
Patronage	Satavahana dynasty
Material	White marble/limestone
Subject	Buddhist (narrative panels of Jataka tales)
Key features	Narrative art; dynamic movement; slender figures; elaborate ornamentation
Stupa	Amaravati Stupa (largest in South India)
Unique	Most narrative of all schools; story-telling relief panels

Comparison of Three Schools

Feature	Gandhara	Mathura	Amaravati
Region	NW India (Pakistan)	North India (UP)	South India (AP)
Stone	Grey sandstone	Red sandstone	White marble
Influence	Greco-Roman	Indigenous Indian	Indigenous + Dravidian
Buddha’s hair	Wavy, Apollo-like	Tight curls/shaven	Curls
Drapery	Heavy, covers both shoulders	Thin, transparent	Elaborate
Halo	Plain	Decorated	Decorated
Expression	Serious, sad	Smiling, warm	Dynamic, graceful

Gupta Period Art (4th-6th century CE) — “Golden Age”

Feature	Detail
Period	320-550 CE
Significance	Perfection of Indian classical art
Material	Sandstone (Sarnath cream), bronze
Key centers	Sarnath, Mathura, Deogarh
Buddha image (Sarnath)	Transparent robe; downcast eyes; perfect meditation pose; elaborate halo
Metal work	Sultanganj Buddha (largest bronze of that era — 2.3 meters)
Temple	Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh (earliest surviving structural Hindu temple)

Masterpieces of Gupta Art:

Work	Location	Feature
Sarnath Buddha	Sarnath, UP	Most refined Buddha sculpture ever
Ajanta paintings	Maharashtra	Caves 1, 2, 16, 17 — finest murals
Dashavatara Temple	Deogarh, UP	First stone Hindu temple with sculpture panels
Iron Pillar of Delhi	Mehrauli, Delhi	Rust-free iron (4th century metallurgy)
Coins	—	Most artistic coins in Indian history

Temple Architecture

Three Major Styles

Feature	Nagara (North)	Dravida (South)	Vesara (Hybrid)
Region	North India (Vindhyas to Himalayas)	South India (below Krishna river)	Deccan (between Vindhyas and Krishna)
Tower/Spire	Shikhara (curvilinear)	Vimana (pyramidal, stepped)	Mix of both
Shape of tower	Curved (beehive-like)	Straight-sided, terraced	Rounded + stepped
Entrance tower	No separate gopuram	Gopuram (elaborate gateway tower)	—
Plan	Square	Square/Rectangular	—
Boundary wall	Usually absent	Prakara (high boundary wall)	—
Water body	Absent or simple	Temple tank (Pushkarini)	—
Examples	Khajuraho, Konark, Lingaraj	Brihadeeswarar (Thanjavur), Meenakshi (Madurai)	Hoysala temples (Belur, Halebidu)

Parts of a Temple

Part	Nagara Term	Dravida Term	Function
Sanctum (garbhagriha)	Garbhagriha	Garbhagriha	Houses deity
Tower above sanctum	Shikhara	Vimana	Vertical element
Entrance hall	Mandapa	Mandapa	Assembly/prayer
Ambulatory	Pradakshina patha	Prakara	Circumambulation
Gateway tower	—	Gopuram	Grand entrance
Finial (top)	Amalaka + Kalasha	Stupi/Kalasha	Crowning element

Evolution of North Indian (Nagara) Temples

Period	Style	Examples
Gupta (5th-6th c.)	Simple, flat-roofed	Dashavatara (Deogarh), Vishnu Temple (Tigawa)
Early Medieval (7th-8th c.)	Developing shikhara	Parasurameswara (Bhubaneshwar)
Mature (9th-11th c.)	Elaborate, tall shikhara	Khajuraho, Lingaraj (Bhubaneshwar)
Late (12th-13th c.)	Gigantic, highly ornate	Konark Sun Temple

South Indian (Dravida) Temple Evolution

Dynasty	Period	Key Temples	Feature
Pallava	7th-9th c.	Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram), Kailasanatha (Kanchipuram)	Rock-cut to structural transition
Chola	9th-13th c.	Brihadeeswarar (Thanjavur), Gangaikondacholapuram	Tallest vimana; granite construction
Pandya	13th-16th c.	Meenakshi (Madurai)	Elaborate gopurams dominate
Vijayanagara	14th-16th c.	Vittala Temple (Hampi)	Pillared halls, musical pillars
Nayak	16th-18th c.	Ranganathaswamy (Srirangam)	Concentric prakaras; tallest gopurams

Cave Architecture

Ajanta Caves

Feature	Detail
Location	Aurangabad, Maharashtra (horseshoe-shaped gorge on Waghora river)
Period	2nd century BCE to 6th century CE (two phases)
Total caves	30 (5 chaityas + 25 viharas)
Patronage	Satavahanas (early), Vakatakas (later)
Subject	Buddhist (Jataka tales, life of Buddha)
Famous paintings	Cave 1: Padmapani and Vajrapani; Cave 17: Flying Apsara
UNESCO	World Heritage Site (1983)
Technique	Fresco secco (painting on dry plaster)

Ellora Caves

Feature	Detail
Location	Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Period	5th to 10th century CE
Total caves	34 (Buddhist: 1-12, Hindu: 13-29, Jain: 30-34)
Most famous	Cave 16: Kailasa Temple (monolithic — carved from single rock, top-down)
Patronage	Rashtrakutas (Kailasa Temple by Krishna I)
Significance	All three religions side by side — religious harmony
UNESCO	World Heritage Site (1983)

Elephanta Caves

Feature	Detail
Location	Elephanta Island, Mumbai Harbour
Period	5th-8th century CE
Subject	Hindu (Shaiva)
Most famous	Trimurti (three-headed Shiva: Creator, Preserver, Destroyer) — 6 meters tall
Patronage	Likely Rashtrakutas or Kalachuris
UNESCO	World Heritage Site (1987)

Other Important Caves

Cave	Location	Religion	Key Feature
Barabar Caves	Bihar	Ajivika sect	Oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India (Mauryan, 3rd century BCE)
Udayagiri Caves	Odisha	Jain	Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela
Badami Caves	Karnataka	Hindu, Jain, Buddhist	Chalukya period (6th century); Cave 3 has Vishnu panel
Karle Caves	Maharashtra	Buddhist	Largest chaitya hall in India

Chaitya vs Vihara

Feature	Chaitya	Vihara
Purpose	Prayer hall (worship)	Monastery (living quarters)
Central feature	Stupa at far end	Open courtyard with cells
Shape	Apsidal (semi-circular end)	Rectangular/Square
Roof	Barrel-vaulted	Flat
Example	Karle, Ajanta Cave 19	Ajanta Caves 1, 2, 16, 17

Kerala’s Architectural Heritage

Style	Feature	Example
Kerala temple architecture	Circular/Square garbhagriha with copper/tile roof	Padmanabhaswamy Temple
Distinctive elements	Sloping tiled roof (rain), Koothambalam (theatre), Namaskara Mandapam	—
Material	Laterite stone + wood + copper	—
Influence	Dravidian base with local adaptations	—
Mural tradition	16th-18th century; similar technique to Ajanta	Mattancherry Palace, Padmanabhapuram

PSC Frequently Asked Questions

Question	Answer
Gandhara art — which stone?	Grey sandstone
Mathura art — which stone?	Red sandstone
First Buddha image created by	Gandhara school (also Mathura — debated)
Ajanta caves are related to	Buddhism
Kailasa Temple (Ellora) — who built?	Krishna I of Rashtrakuta dynasty
Trimurti sculpture at	Elephanta Caves
Shore Temple at	Mahabalipuram (Pallava)
Brihadeeswarar Temple built by	Rajaraja Chola I
Tallest gopuram in India	Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam
Musical pillars at	Vittala Temple, Hampi
Nagara style shikhara shape	Curvilinear (beehive)
Dravida style vimana shape	Pyramidal (stepped)

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Memory Aid: Art schools by stone color: “Grey for Gandhara, Red for MathuRa, White for AmaraWati.” Temple styles by geography: “North = Nagara, South = Dravida (not S…), Deccan = Vesara.”