The Vedic Age: Rig Veda to Later Vedic Period

The Vedic Age (c. 1500–600 BCE) is the period when Aryan tribes settled in the Indian subcontinent and composed the Vedic texts. It is divided into the Early Vedic (Rig Vedic) period and the Later Vedic period. Kerala PSC regularly tests 2-3 questions from this topic.

1. Timeline and Geography

Period	Timeframe	Region	Primary Text
Early Vedic (Rig Vedic)	1500–1000 BCE	Sapta Sindhu (Punjab, NW India)	Rig Veda
Later Vedic	1000–600 BCE	Gangetic plains (expanded eastward)	Sama, Yajur, Atharva Vedas + Brahmanas

Sapta Sindhu (Seven Rivers): Indus, Jhelum (Vitasta), Chenab (Asikni), Ravi (Parushni), Beas (Vipas), Sutlej (Shutudri), and Saraswati.

2. Vedic Literature

The Four Vedas

Veda	Content	Key Facts
Rig Veda	Hymns (Suktas) to gods	Oldest text; 10 Mandalas, 1028 hymns; Mandala III has Gayatri Mantra
Sama Veda	Melodies/Chants	Set to music; “Book of Chants”; basis of Indian music
Yajur Veda	Rituals/Formulae	Prose + verse; divided into Shukla (White) and Krishna (Black)
Atharva Veda	Spells, medicine, daily life	Non-ritualistic; magic, healing, philosophy

Associated Literature

Category	Relationship to Vedas	Content
Brahmanas	Prose commentary	Explain rituals and their meanings
Aranyakas	”Forest books”	Mysticism, transition from ritual to philosophy
Upanishads	”Vedanta” (end of Vedas)	Philosophy, Atman-Brahman concept
Vedangas	Auxiliary texts	6 limbs: Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhanda, Jyotisha

Important Upanishads

Upanishad	Associated Veda	Key Teaching
Brihadaranyaka	Shukla Yajur Veda	Largest Upanishad; concept of Atman
Chandogya	Sama Veda	”Tat Tvam Asi” (That Thou Art)
Isha	Shukla Yajur Veda	Shortest; renunciation
Kena	Sama Veda	Nature of Brahman
Katha	Krishna Yajur Veda	Dialogue of Nachiketa and Yama; soul’s immortality
Mundaka	Atharva Veda	”Satyameva Jayate” source for national emblem motto

3. Early Vedic (Rig Vedic) Society

Political System

Feature	Details
Basic unit	Kula (family)
Hierarchy	Kula → Grama → Vis → Jana → Rashtra
King (Rajan)	Elected/tribal chief, not hereditary; protector in war
Assemblies	Sabha (council of elders), Samiti (general assembly), Vidatha (oldest, all-purpose)
Important officials	Purohit (priest), Senani (army chief), Gramini (village head)
No tax system	Voluntary offering called Bali

Social Structure

Feature	Details
Varna system	Existed but flexible; based on occupation, not birth
Women’s status	Relatively high; attended assemblies, composed hymns (e.g., Lopamudra, Ghosa, Vishvavara)
Child marriage	Not prevalent
Education	Both sexes could receive education
Joint family	Patriarchal but women had property rights

Economy

Feature	Details
Primary occupation	Pastoralism (cattle-rearing)
Wealth measured in	Cattle (Gavishti = search for cows = war)
Agriculture	Known but secondary; limited cultivation
Trade	Barter system; cow as unit of value
Crafts	Carpentry, weaving, leather-work, pottery
Rivers	Used for transport

Religion

Feature	Details
Nature worship	Primary form; personification of natural forces
Chief deity	Indra (250 hymns) — god of war and rain
Other deities	Agni (fire, 200 hymns), Varuna (water/cosmic order), Surya, Usha, Maruts
Female deities	Ushas (dawn), Aditi, Prithvi — but lesser role
Worship method	Prayers and yajnas (fire sacrifices); no idol worship, no temples
Concept of Rita	Cosmic order maintained by Varuna

4. Later Vedic Period

Political Changes

Feature	Early Vedic	Later Vedic
King’s power	Limited, elected	Hereditary, absolute; performed Ashvamedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeya
Territory	Tribal/Jana	Mahajanapadas forming
Assemblies	Sabha, Samiti active	Lost importance; women excluded from Sabha
Officials	Few	Many — Bhagadugha (tax collector), Sthapati (chief judge), Sangrahitri (treasurer)
Standing army	No	Beginning to form

Social Changes

Feature	Early Vedic	Later Vedic
Varna system	Flexible	Rigid; birth-based; Brahmins supreme
Four Ashramas	Not formalised	Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sannyasa
Women’s status	High	Declined; lost access to Upanayana, Sabha
Gotra system	Not established	Established; same-gotra marriage prohibited
Untouchability	Absent	Beginning traces (Chandalas mentioned)

Economic Changes

Feature	Early Vedic	Later Vedic
Primary occupation	Pastoralism	Agriculture became dominant
Iron use	Unknown	Known (Krishna Ayas = iron)
Crafts	Basic	Specialised — 15+ crafts mentioned
Trade	Barter	Use of Nishka (gold unit) as currency; sea trade begins
Land ownership	Communal	Individual/family ownership
Rice cultivation	Not mentioned	Mentioned (Gangetic plains)

Religious Changes

Feature	Early Vedic	Later Vedic
Chief deity	Indra	Prajapati (Creator); then Vishnu and Rudra (Shiva) gain importance
Indra and Agni	Supreme	Decline in importance
Rituals	Simple prayers	Elaborate, expensive yajnas
Priests	Modest role	Dominant; complex rituals needed specialists
New concepts	Rita (cosmic order)	Karma, Moksha, Transmigration of soul
Opposition	None	Rise of Upanishadic philosophy against ritualism

5. Vedic Rituals and Yajnas

Yajna	Purpose	Significance
Rajasuya	King’s consecration	Established supreme sovereignty
Ashvamedha	Horse sacrifice	Proved unchallenged authority over territory
Vajapeya	Chariot race ritual	Re-established king’s vigour
Agnishtoma	Soma sacrifice	Major public ritual
Agnyadheya	Establishing sacred fire	Mandatory for householder

6. Important Terms for PSC

Term	Meaning
Gavishti	War (literally: search for cows)
Aghanya	Not to be killed (cow)
Bali	Voluntary tribute to king
Bhaga	Compulsory tax (Later Vedic)
Nishka	Gold ornament used as currency unit
Shreni	Guild of craftsmen
Dasas/Dasyus	Pre-Aryan inhabitants; later = slaves
Panini	Grammarian; wrote Ashtadhyayi (Later Vedic/post-Vedic)
Yaska	Wrote Nirukta (oldest commentary/etymology)

7. Key Points to Remember

• Rig Veda mentions the word “Varna” only once (Purusha Sukta, Mandala X — considered a later addition)
• The word “Shudra” appears only once in Rig Veda
• Iron was called “Shyama Ayas” or “Krishna Ayas” (dark/black metal)
• Copper was called “Lohit Ayas” (red metal)
• The famous “Satyameva Jayate” comes from Mundaka Upanishad
• The national motto is taken from the same source
• Gayatri Mantra is dedicated to Savitri (Solar deity), found in Rig Veda Mandala III
• Battle of Ten Kings (Dasharajna) is described in Rig Veda Mandala VII — fought on River Parushni (Ravi)
• King Sudas of Bharata tribe won the Battle of Ten Kings