Water Resources of India: Groundwater, Harvesting, Disputes & Jal Shakti

Water resources is a high-frequency geography topic in Kerala PSC exams. Questions cover sources, groundwater, irrigation, water disputes, government schemes, and conservation. The tables below organize all exam-essential facts.

1. India’s Water Resources — Overview

Parameter	Detail
India’s share of world’s water resources	About 4%
India’s share of world’s population	About 17.5%
Average annual rainfall	About 1,170 mm
Total annual precipitation	About 4,000 billion cubic metres (BCM)
Utilisable water resources	About 1,123 BCM (690 surface + 433 groundwater)
Per capita water availability (2011)	About 1,545 cubic metres/year
Water stress threshold	Below 1,700 cubic metres per capita per year
Water scarcity threshold	Below 1,000 cubic metres per capita per year

2. Sources of Water

Source	Share of Total Fresh Water
Surface water (rivers, lakes)	Primary source for irrigation and drinking
Groundwater	About 63% of irrigation; about 85% of rural drinking water
Rainwater	Main replenisher of all freshwater sources
Glaciers	Feed north Indian rivers (Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra systems)

3. Groundwater in India

Feature	Detail
India’s rank in groundwater extraction	1st globally (about 25% of world’s total extraction)
Major use	Irrigation (about 63% of irrigated area depends on groundwater)
Groundwater assessment body	Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) under Ministry of Jal Shakti
Over-exploited blocks	States with high exploitation: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu
Recharge methods	Rainwater harvesting, percolation tanks, check dams, recharge wells

4. Rainwater Harvesting

Feature	Detail
Definition	Collection and storage of rainwater for reuse
Methods	Rooftop harvesting, surface runoff collection, recharge pits, percolation tanks
First Indian state to make it compulsory	Tamil Nadu (2001) — mandatory for all buildings
Kerala	Kerala Water Authority promotes rooftop harvesting; Mazhavil (Mazhapolima) initiative in Thrissur
Traditional systems in India	Johads (Rajasthan), Tankas (Thar desert), Eris (Tamil Nadu), Surangams (Kerala/Karnataka)

5. Watershed Management

Feature	Detail
Definition	Planned management of a drainage basin (watershed) to conserve soil and water
Key activities	Contour bunding, terracing, check dams, afforestation, gully plugging
Major programmes	Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP, merged into PMKSY)
Ralegan Siddhi (Maharashtra)	Model village of Anna Hazare; successful watershed management
Hiware Bazar (Maharashtra)	Water-positive village through community watershed management

6. Major Government Schemes for Water

Scheme	Year	Details
Jal Jeevan Mission	2019	Functional household tap connection (Har Ghar Jal) to every rural household by 2024
Jal Shakti Abhiyan	2019	Water conservation campaign; focus on water-stressed districts
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY)	2020	Groundwater management in 7 states with over-exploited blocks
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)	2015	”Har Khet Ko Paani” — more crop per drop; micro-irrigation, watershed development
MGNREGA	2006	Water conservation structures (check dams, farm ponds) as part of employment guarantee
National Water Mission	2011	Under National Action Plan on Climate Change; 20% improvement in water use efficiency
Swachh Bharat Mission (water component)	2014	Grey water management, waste water treatment

7. Ministry of Jal Shakti

Feature	Detail
Formed	2019 (merged Ministry of Water Resources + Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation)
Under departments	Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation; Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation
Key missions	Jal Jeevan Mission, Namami Gange

8. Inter-State Water Disputes

Dispute	States Involved	River	Tribunal
Cauvery Water Dispute	Karnataka vs Tamil Nadu vs Kerala vs Puducherry	Cauvery	Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (1990; final award 2007; SC verdict 2018)
Krishna Water Dispute	Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana	Krishna	Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal (I: 1969; II: 2004)
Godavari Water Dispute	Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha	Godavari	Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal (1969; award 1980)
Ravi-Beas Dispute	Punjab vs Haryana	Ravi, Beas	SYL Canal dispute (ongoing)
Mullaperiyar Dam	Kerala vs Tamil Nadu	Periyar	Supreme Court case (dam height: SC allowed 142 feet in 2014)
Mahanadi Dispute	Odisha vs Chhattisgarh	Mahanadi	Tribunal constituted 2018

9. Inter-State Water Disputes Act

Feature	Detail
Act	Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956
Article	Article 262 — Parliament may provide for adjudication of inter-state river disputes
Tribunal	Central Government constitutes a tribunal; its decision is final and binding
Bar on SC jurisdiction	Article 262(2) allows Parliament to bar SC from such disputes

10. Water Resources in Kerala

Feature	Detail
Rivers	44 rivers (41 west-flowing, 3 east-flowing)
Longest river	Periyar (244 km)
Annual rainfall	About 3,000 mm (well above national average)
Paradox	High rainfall but seasonal water scarcity due to steep terrain and poor retention
Mullaperiyar Dam	On Periyar river; 895 feet altitude; water diverted to Tamil Nadu for irrigation
Surangams	Traditional horizontal well tunnels in Kasaragod district
Mazhapolima	Rainwater harvesting initiative in Thrissur district

11. Previous Year Question Patterns

• “India’s rank in groundwater extraction?” — 1st
• “Jal Jeevan Mission target?” — Tap connection to every rural household
• “First state to make rainwater harvesting compulsory?” — Tamil Nadu (2001)
• “Article for inter-state water disputes?” — 262
• “Inter-State Water Disputes Act year?” — 1956
• “Cauvery dispute involves which states?” — Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry
• “Longest river in Kerala?” — Periyar
• “Mullaperiyar Dam dispute?” — Kerala vs Tamil Nadu
• “Ministry of Jal Shakti formed in?” — 2019